![]() ![]() Reducing plastic litter inputs by source-reduction and waste management is one of the most valuable solutions to restore the oceans. These include national and international governance, reducing release of plastics in wastewater treatment plants, consumer education and awareness, and improvements in life-cycle and end-of-life management. Long-lasting solutions require multidisciplinary approaches and international cooperation, since plastic pollution affects neighboring countries and international waters. Conversely, availability of science-based solutions and technology lack integration and implementation across a number of sectors, and by stakeholders worldwide. Although, clean-up actions help to reduce pressure of plastic pollution on ecosystems, they are insufficient to control this pervasive problem. ![]() However, removing all plastics from the environment seems impossible due to widespread environmental pollution with plastic particles of all sizes. Ĭlean-up activities have been proposed as mitigation strategies, as well as tools for awareness and citizen science. The life-cycle of plastics and plastic pollution contributes directly to climate change and has negative impacts on biodiversity loss. ![]() ![]() Plastic pollution is thought to be a planetary boundary threat, as it is irreversible (low degradation, impossibility to recover all plastics), at planetary-scale, and likely to disrupt Earth system processes, either by having negative effects on ecosystems or by altering the physicochemical properties of the environment. Plastics of all sizes have potential to cause social and economic losses (e.g., damage to fishing equipment loss in tourism revenue) and impose important threats to natural ecosystems and human health. In the open ocean, gyres produced by wind and currents lead to accumulation of plastic marine debris. High concentrations of microplastics are usually found in coastal areas near industrial facilities, ports and large metropolitan areas. Up to 102,000 microplastics m −3 have been found in a Swedish harbor. Plastic behavior in the environment is influenced by its properties, such as density, but also by adsorption of organisms (biofouling) and chemicals to its surface, which also contribute to toxicity. Polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) are the most common plastics found in the oceans, the most commonly produced plastics worldwide. When exposed to environmental conditions, plastics fragment via photo and thermo-oxidative degradation producing particles <5 mm, known as secondary microplastics. An estimated 4.8 to 12.7 million metric tons of mismanaged plastic waste entered the oceans worldwide in 2010. In 2016, global production of plastics reached 322 million metric tons, with a large portion (39.9% in Europe) being used in packaging. Plastic accumulation in the environment is increasing due to low degradation rates coupled with unsustainable use and disposal. Ten recommendations for stakeholders to reduce plastic pollution include (1) regulation of production and consumption (2) eco-design (3) increasing the demand for recycled plastics (4) reducing the use of plastics (5) use of renewable energy for recycling (6) extended producer responsibility over waste (7) improvements in waste collection systems (8) prioritization of recycling (9) use of bio-based and biodegradable plastics and (10) improvement in recyclability of e-waste. In this review paper, we discuss current practices to improve life cycle and waste management of plastics that can be implemented to reduce health and environmental impacts of plastics and reduce plastics pollution. Mismanaged waste is a major land-based source of plastic pollution that can be reduced through improvements in the life-cycle of plastics, especially in production, consumption, and disposal, through an Integrated Waste Management System. Thus, reducing inputs of plastic to the environment must be prioritized through a global multidisciplinary approach. Current clean-up strategies have attempted to mitigate the negative effects of plastic pollution but are unable to compete with increasing quantities of plastic entering the environment. Plastic pollution is generated by the unsustainable use and disposal of plastic products in modern society, threatening economies, ecosystems, and human health. ![]()
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